Is the universe bursting at the seams? Or is nature somehow fooling us?
Showing posts with label Dark Energy. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Dark Energy. Show all posts
Saturday, October 15, 2011
Cosmic Journeys: Mysteries of a Dark Universe
Is the universe bursting at the seams? Or is nature somehow fooling us?
Labels:
Astronomy,
Dark Energy,
Planets Galaxy,
Scientists,
Star,
Technology,
Universe,
Video
Friday, August 20, 2010
The universe 'will expand forever',
new Nasa study on 'dark energy' concludes
new Nasa study on 'dark energy' concludes
The universe will continue to expand forever, Nasa scientists concluded in a new study that sheds light on one of the greatest astronomical puzzles, “dark energy”.
The massive gravitational force of the dark matter (shown in blue) in giant galaxy cluster Abell 1689 bends the light from distant background galaxies, giving astronomers clues to the nature of dark energy. Photo: NASA/ JPL
Space agency researchers used the Hubble Space Telescope to “narrow in” on what they believe comprises the energy, which pushes our universe apart at ever-increasing speed.
Discovered it in 1998, astronomers have been unable to say what the mysterious force is, except that it is invisible and makes up a “large chunk of our universe”, or 72 per cent of its size.
SourceAlmost a quarter, 24 per cent, is thought to be "dark matter", which is also mysterious but easier to study than dark energy because of its “gravitational influence”.
The rest of the universe, a mere four per cent, is made of “the stuff that makes up people, planets, stars and everything made up of atoms”.
By using the huge “galactic magnifying lens” the international team of scientists, led by Nasa's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, concluded the distribution of dark energy would mean the universe would never stop growing.
The study, published in the journal Science on Thursday, also found it would eventually become a dead and cold wasteland.
The scientists used Hubble and European Space Observatory's Very Large Telescope to observe how light from distant stars became distorted around a nearby cluster of galaxies called Abell 1689.
The galaxies, found in the constellation of Virgo, is one of the biggest galactic clusters known to science.
Due to its huge mass, scientists say it “acts as a cosmic magnifying glass”, causing light to bend around it.
"We have to tackle the dark energy problem from all sides," said Prof Eric Jullo, a JPL scientist who led the international study.
"It's important to have several methods, and now we've got a new, very powerful one.
"What I like about our new method is that it's very visual. You can literally see gravitation and dark energy bend the images of the background galaxies into arcs.”
He said the study’s conclusion meant scientists could say for the first time that the expansion of the universe “will continue to accelerate and the universe will expand forever”.
Priya Natarajan, a cosmologist at Yale University, who was part of the team, added: “We can now apply our technique to other gravitational lenses.
The rest of the universe, a mere four per cent, is made of “the stuff that makes up people, planets, stars and everything made up of atoms”.
By using the huge “galactic magnifying lens” the international team of scientists, led by Nasa's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, concluded the distribution of dark energy would mean the universe would never stop growing.
The study, published in the journal Science on Thursday, also found it would eventually become a dead and cold wasteland.
The scientists used Hubble and European Space Observatory's Very Large Telescope to observe how light from distant stars became distorted around a nearby cluster of galaxies called Abell 1689.
The galaxies, found in the constellation of Virgo, is one of the biggest galactic clusters known to science.
Due to its huge mass, scientists say it “acts as a cosmic magnifying glass”, causing light to bend around it.
"We have to tackle the dark energy problem from all sides," said Prof Eric Jullo, a JPL scientist who led the international study.
"It's important to have several methods, and now we've got a new, very powerful one.
"What I like about our new method is that it's very visual. You can literally see gravitation and dark energy bend the images of the background galaxies into arcs.”
He said the study’s conclusion meant scientists could say for the first time that the expansion of the universe “will continue to accelerate and the universe will expand forever”.
Priya Natarajan, a cosmologist at Yale University, who was part of the team, added: “We can now apply our technique to other gravitational lenses.
Labels:
Astronomy,
Big Bang,
Dark Energy,
NASA,
Planets Galaxy,
Scientists,
Speculation,
Universe
Sunday, October 25, 2009
Rethinking relativity: Is time out of joint?
by Rachel Courtland
EVER since Arthur Eddington travelled to the island of Príncipe off Africa to measure starlight bending around the sun during a 1919 eclipse, evidence for Einstein's theory of general relativity has only become stronger. Could it now be that starlight from distant galaxies is illuminating cracks in the theory's foundation?
Everything from the concept of the black hole to GPS timing owes a debt to the theory of general relativity, which describes how gravity arises from the geometry of space and time. The sun's gravitational field, for instance, bends starlight passing nearby because its mass is warping the surrounding space-time. This theory has held up to precision tests in the solar system and beyond, and has explained everything from the odd orbit of Mercury to the way pairs of neutron stars perform their pas de deux.
Yet it is still not clear how well general relativity holds up over cosmic scales, at distances much larger than the span of single galaxies. Now the first, tentative hint of a deviation from general relativity has been found. While the evidence is far from watertight, if confirmed by bigger surveys, it may indicate either that Einstein's theory is incomplete, or else that dark energy, the stuff thought to be accelerating the expansion of the universe, is much weirder than we thought (see "Not dark energy, dark fluid").
The analysis of starlight data by cosmologist Rachel Bean of Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, has generated quite a stir. Shortly after the paper was published on the pre-print physics archive, prominent physicist Sean Carroll of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena praised Bean's research. "This is serious work by a respected cosmologist," he wrote on his blog Cosmic Variance. "Either the result is wrong, and we should be working hard to find out why, or it's right, and we're on the cusp of a revolution."
If it is wrong, we should be working hard to find out why, but if it's right, we are on the cusp of a revolution
"It has caused quite a furore in astronomy circles," says Richard Massey of the Royal Observatory Edinburgh in the UK. "This paper has generated a lot of interest."
Bean found her evidence lurking in existing data collected by the Cosmic Evolution Survey, a multi-telescope imaging project that includes the longest survey yet by the Hubble Space Telescope. COSMOS, which detected more than 2 million galaxies over a small patch of sky, takes advantage of gravity's ability to bend light. Massive objects like galaxy clusters bend the light of more distant objects so that it is directed towards or away from Earth. This effect, called gravitational lensing, is at its most dramatic when it creates kaleidoscopic effects like luminous rings or the appearance of multiple copies of a galaxy.
The sky is also dominated by the distorting effects of "weak lensing", in which intervening matter bends light to subtly alter the shapes and orientations of more distant galaxies, creating an effect similar to that of looking through old window glass. Since galaxies come in all shapes and sizes, it is difficult to know whether the light from an individual galaxy has been distorted, because there is nothing to compare it with. But by looking for common factors in the distortion of many galaxies, it is possible to build up a map of both the visible and even unseen matterMovie Camera that bend their light.
The weak lensing technique can also be used to measure two different effects of gravity. General relativity calls for gravity's curvature of space to be equivalent to its curvature of time. Light should be influenced in equal amounts by both.
When the COSMOS data was released in 2007, the team - led by Massey - assumed these two factors were equivalent. Their analysis revealed that gravitational tugs on light were stronger than anticipated, but they put this down to a slightly higher concentration of ordinary and dark matter in the survey's patch of sky than had been predicted.
To look for potential deviations from general relativity, Bean reanalysed the data and dropped the requirement that these two components of gravity had to be equal. Instead the ratio of the two was allowed to change in value. She found that between 8 and 11 billion years ago gravity's distortion of time appeared to be three times as strong as its ability to curve space. An observer around at the time wouldn't have noticed the effect because it only applies over large distances. Nonetheless, "there is a preference for a significant deviation from general relativity", says Bean (www.arxiv.org/abs/0909.3853).
Gravity's distortion of time appeared to be three times as strong as its ability to curve space
At this stage, it's hard to say what would happen if the deviation from general relativity was confirmed. Cosmologists have already considered some modifications to general relativity that could explain the universe's acceleration (see "Not dark energy, dark fluid").
Yet finding a deviation when the universe was less than half its current age is odd - if general relativity had broken down at some level, the signs should be most dramatic more recently, long after the repulsive effect of dark energy overwhelmed the attractive powers of gravity some 6 billion years ago.
Most astronomers, including Bean, are cautious about the results. "Nobody is yet betting money that the effect is real," says cosmologist Dragan Huterer of the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. Various other explanations, like a bias in the technique used to estimate the distances to galaxies, now need to be ruled out.
Although COSMOS photographed a deep patch of sky, it was fairly small by the standards of modern surveys. This opens up the possibility that this region might be anomalous, notes Asantha Cooray, an astrophysicist at the University of California, Irvine. "You could have a massive galaxy cluster that could boost your weak lensing signal up. Or by random chance you could have more dark matter," says Cooray, part of a team that analysed other survey data taken with the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope in Hawaii and found no hint of a departure from general relativity. "The only way to take that into account is to look at data in a larger field."
Future projects will scan the sky over much wider areas and collect images of many more lensed galaxies. For example, the Dark Energy Survey is poised to start surveying the sky from 2011 and will build up an even more precise picture of how light has been bent over the course of the universe's history.
Whether these surveys find the effect or not, Bean hopes that her paper will generate more interest in the idea of using weak lensing to test general relativity. "I'm not putting my flag out there and saying this is a real thing," Bean says. "We need to look at more data sets. This is really just the first stage for trying to test gravity in this way."
Massey agrees: "At the moment we're in the mode of just trying to hack into general relativity to find the chinks in its armour, to find any places where it might not be working." Not dark energy, dark fluid
Dark energy could be weirder than we thought. Evidence that over large distances gravity exerts a greater pull on time than on space (see main story) might not necessarily suggest that the theory of general relativity is wrong. It could instead be a sign that the universe's acceleration may require a more exotic explanation.
The simplest way of explaining the universe's acceleration is to invoke a cosmological constant, originally proposed by Einstein to allow the universe to remain the same size in the presence of matter. This describes a universe filled with uniform, outward-pushing energy. But there are other possible explanations for acceleration.
One idea is that the entire universe exists on a membrane, or brane, floating inside an extra dimension. While matter will be confined to three dimensions, gravity could be leaking into this extra dimension. When the universe becomes large enough, this gravity could interact with matter in the brane, to produce acceleration on large scales.
A deviation could also be a sign that dark energy is a more complex "fluid" that exerts varying pressures in different directions. The snag is that telling the difference between a more exotic form of dark energy and a modification to our understanding of gravity could be tricky.
"If we were to detect a departure," says cosmologist Alessandra Silvestri of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, we might not be able to tell whether there is a flaw in general relativity or just evidence that dark energy is "some sort of fancy fluid".
Source

EVER since Arthur Eddington travelled to the island of Príncipe off Africa to measure starlight bending around the sun during a 1919 eclipse, evidence for Einstein's theory of general relativity has only become stronger. Could it now be that starlight from distant galaxies is illuminating cracks in the theory's foundation?
Everything from the concept of the black hole to GPS timing owes a debt to the theory of general relativity, which describes how gravity arises from the geometry of space and time. The sun's gravitational field, for instance, bends starlight passing nearby because its mass is warping the surrounding space-time. This theory has held up to precision tests in the solar system and beyond, and has explained everything from the odd orbit of Mercury to the way pairs of neutron stars perform their pas de deux.
Yet it is still not clear how well general relativity holds up over cosmic scales, at distances much larger than the span of single galaxies. Now the first, tentative hint of a deviation from general relativity has been found. While the evidence is far from watertight, if confirmed by bigger surveys, it may indicate either that Einstein's theory is incomplete, or else that dark energy, the stuff thought to be accelerating the expansion of the universe, is much weirder than we thought (see "Not dark energy, dark fluid").
The analysis of starlight data by cosmologist Rachel Bean of Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, has generated quite a stir. Shortly after the paper was published on the pre-print physics archive, prominent physicist Sean Carroll of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena praised Bean's research. "This is serious work by a respected cosmologist," he wrote on his blog Cosmic Variance. "Either the result is wrong, and we should be working hard to find out why, or it's right, and we're on the cusp of a revolution."
If it is wrong, we should be working hard to find out why, but if it's right, we are on the cusp of a revolution
"It has caused quite a furore in astronomy circles," says Richard Massey of the Royal Observatory Edinburgh in the UK. "This paper has generated a lot of interest."
Bean found her evidence lurking in existing data collected by the Cosmic Evolution Survey, a multi-telescope imaging project that includes the longest survey yet by the Hubble Space Telescope. COSMOS, which detected more than 2 million galaxies over a small patch of sky, takes advantage of gravity's ability to bend light. Massive objects like galaxy clusters bend the light of more distant objects so that it is directed towards or away from Earth. This effect, called gravitational lensing, is at its most dramatic when it creates kaleidoscopic effects like luminous rings or the appearance of multiple copies of a galaxy.
The sky is also dominated by the distorting effects of "weak lensing", in which intervening matter bends light to subtly alter the shapes and orientations of more distant galaxies, creating an effect similar to that of looking through old window glass. Since galaxies come in all shapes and sizes, it is difficult to know whether the light from an individual galaxy has been distorted, because there is nothing to compare it with. But by looking for common factors in the distortion of many galaxies, it is possible to build up a map of both the visible and even unseen matterMovie Camera that bend their light.
The weak lensing technique can also be used to measure two different effects of gravity. General relativity calls for gravity's curvature of space to be equivalent to its curvature of time. Light should be influenced in equal amounts by both.
When the COSMOS data was released in 2007, the team - led by Massey - assumed these two factors were equivalent. Their analysis revealed that gravitational tugs on light were stronger than anticipated, but they put this down to a slightly higher concentration of ordinary and dark matter in the survey's patch of sky than had been predicted.
To look for potential deviations from general relativity, Bean reanalysed the data and dropped the requirement that these two components of gravity had to be equal. Instead the ratio of the two was allowed to change in value. She found that between 8 and 11 billion years ago gravity's distortion of time appeared to be three times as strong as its ability to curve space. An observer around at the time wouldn't have noticed the effect because it only applies over large distances. Nonetheless, "there is a preference for a significant deviation from general relativity", says Bean (www.arxiv.org/abs/0909.3853).
Gravity's distortion of time appeared to be three times as strong as its ability to curve space
At this stage, it's hard to say what would happen if the deviation from general relativity was confirmed. Cosmologists have already considered some modifications to general relativity that could explain the universe's acceleration (see "Not dark energy, dark fluid").
Yet finding a deviation when the universe was less than half its current age is odd - if general relativity had broken down at some level, the signs should be most dramatic more recently, long after the repulsive effect of dark energy overwhelmed the attractive powers of gravity some 6 billion years ago.
Most astronomers, including Bean, are cautious about the results. "Nobody is yet betting money that the effect is real," says cosmologist Dragan Huterer of the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. Various other explanations, like a bias in the technique used to estimate the distances to galaxies, now need to be ruled out.
Although COSMOS photographed a deep patch of sky, it was fairly small by the standards of modern surveys. This opens up the possibility that this region might be anomalous, notes Asantha Cooray, an astrophysicist at the University of California, Irvine. "You could have a massive galaxy cluster that could boost your weak lensing signal up. Or by random chance you could have more dark matter," says Cooray, part of a team that analysed other survey data taken with the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope in Hawaii and found no hint of a departure from general relativity. "The only way to take that into account is to look at data in a larger field."
Future projects will scan the sky over much wider areas and collect images of many more lensed galaxies. For example, the Dark Energy Survey is poised to start surveying the sky from 2011 and will build up an even more precise picture of how light has been bent over the course of the universe's history.
Whether these surveys find the effect or not, Bean hopes that her paper will generate more interest in the idea of using weak lensing to test general relativity. "I'm not putting my flag out there and saying this is a real thing," Bean says. "We need to look at more data sets. This is really just the first stage for trying to test gravity in this way."
Massey agrees: "At the moment we're in the mode of just trying to hack into general relativity to find the chinks in its armour, to find any places where it might not be working." Not dark energy, dark fluid
Dark energy could be weirder than we thought. Evidence that over large distances gravity exerts a greater pull on time than on space (see main story) might not necessarily suggest that the theory of general relativity is wrong. It could instead be a sign that the universe's acceleration may require a more exotic explanation.
The simplest way of explaining the universe's acceleration is to invoke a cosmological constant, originally proposed by Einstein to allow the universe to remain the same size in the presence of matter. This describes a universe filled with uniform, outward-pushing energy. But there are other possible explanations for acceleration.
One idea is that the entire universe exists on a membrane, or brane, floating inside an extra dimension. While matter will be confined to three dimensions, gravity could be leaking into this extra dimension. When the universe becomes large enough, this gravity could interact with matter in the brane, to produce acceleration on large scales.
A deviation could also be a sign that dark energy is a more complex "fluid" that exerts varying pressures in different directions. The snag is that telling the difference between a more exotic form of dark energy and a modification to our understanding of gravity could be tricky.
"If we were to detect a departure," says cosmologist Alessandra Silvestri of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, we might not be able to tell whether there is a flaw in general relativity or just evidence that dark energy is "some sort of fancy fluid".
Source
Sunday, September 27, 2009
Why do we need dark energy to explain the observable universe? Two mathematicians propose an alternate solution that, while beautiful, may raise even more questions than it answers.
Wide Angle / by Veronique Greenwood /
An alternative theory eliminates dark energy by placing Earth at the center of expansion
Expanding Universe What dark materials lie behind universal expansion? Maybe none NASA
Against all reason, the universe is accelerating its expansion. When two prominent research teams dropped this bombshell in 1998, cosmologists had to revise their models of the universe to include an enormous and deeply mysterious placeholder they called “dark energy.” For dark energy to explain the accelerating expansion, it had to constitute more than 70 percent of the universe. It joined another placeholder, “dark matter,” constituting 20 percent, in overshadowing the meager 4 percent that make up everything else—things like stars, planets, and people.
That a huge fraction of the universe could be composed of this enigmatic stuff was unnerving, to say the least. But what was most disturbing to cosmologists was that the discovery required adding a term to Einstein’s equations of general relativity. These equations were derived from pure mathematics and had already beautifully predicted the expansion of the universe, discovered by Edwin Hubble in 1929. To many, even those who accepted its usefulness in explaining the data, dark energy was an inelegant addition. Over the last decade, some researchers have been working to describe what dark energy might be, but others have gone back to see if the equations of general relativity can be tweaked to avoid having to use such a troublesome piece of math.
Building from the Einstein equations, mathematicians Blake Temple and Joel Smoller have now found a way to explain the observations that led researchers to propose dark energy. If their solution, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, fits the data, it could provide a way out of the unpalatable notion of a dark-energy-dominated universe.
The concept of dark energy—which is simply that a phenomenal amount of energy exists in the vacuum of space—emerged from a discrepancy between how far away supernovae were supposed to be and how bright they appeared. In the 1990s, two teams, one led by cosmologists at the Lawrence National Labs (LBNL) and the other by Australia’s Mount Stromlo Observatory, were in the midst of a massive survey of Type Ia supernovae. Measuring the brightness of these huge stellar explosions lets scientists deduce how much the universe has expanded since the light began its journey.
The two teams were hoping to observe that the brightness of the supernovae, which grows increasingly dim the farther they are from Earth, would plateau at the farthest edge of the observable universe. This would reflect the theory that the universe’s expansion was slowing down due to the gravitational pull of matter. But what they observed was the exact opposite. In fact, the supernovae were receding at a rate that would only be possible in a universe with no matter at all. After considering and ultimately rejecting alternative explanations for the dimming, both teams came to the same conclusion: The supernovae were dim because they were being pushed away by a wave of universal, accelerating expansion. And that could only happen if a huge amount of energy was counteracting the force of gravity. Thus, dark energy was conceived.
To Temple and Smoller, mathematicians at the University of California–Davis and the University of Michigan, respectively, dark energy seemed an ad hoc addition to cosmology. While performing mathematical research on shockwaves, Temple and Smoller realized that an expanding wave with its epicenter near the Earth could produce the dimming effects the two teams had observed. The two started talking to astrophysicists and other mathematicians to flesh out the idea. What they discovered was as utterly unexpected to them as dark energy was to cosmologists: An accelerating wave of expansion following the Big Bang could push what later became matter out across the universe, spreading galaxies farther apart the more distant they got from the wave’s center. If this did happen, it would account for the fact that supernovae were dim—they were in fact shoved far away at the very beginning of the universe. But this would’ve been an isolated event, not a constant accelerating force. Their explanation of the 1998 observations does away with the need for dark energy.
The theory is attractive because it describes the effect astronomers observed using only general relativity. It also provides a mechanism for a scenario that’s been discussed in cosmology for some time, the “bubble of underdensity”—the idea that the Earth might be in an area with a low mass density compared to the rest of the universe, which would account for the distance of the supernovae. And Smoller and Temple say that once they have worked out a further version of their solutions, they should have a testable prediction that they can use to see if the theory fits observations.
But as an explanation to replace dark energy, there are at least two serious problems with Temple and Smoller’s wave of expansion, cosmologists say. One is that the supernovae are not the only clues we have that indicate dark energy is real; various characteristics of the cosmic microwave background (the “afterglow” of the big bang, produced when the universe was extremely young) also suggest the presence of dark energy, says Philip Hughes, an astrophysicist at University of Michigan who worked with Temple and Smoller while they were developing their hypothesis. Simulations of the growth of the universe reflect our observations with breathtaking fidelity when dark energy is included, adds Michael Wood-Vasey, a cosmologist at University of Pittsburgh who studied at LBNL. As ad hoc as dark energy may be, it nevertheless reflects reality.
But perhaps the largest objection voiced is that this model would require Earth to be at the center of the universe. In other words, it would violate the Copernican principle, which states that the Earth does not have a special, favored place and that the universe is essentially homogeneous.
Smoller and Temple readily acknowledge this issue. “If you want to preserve the Copernican principle and explain anomalous acceleration, you have to use dark energy,”
Smoller says. “But it is not a law of physics—it’s just a simplifier.” Galaxies and stars are accepted violations of the Copernican principle, of universal homogeneity, on a very local scale. After all, a point where a star has formed is not homogenous with the empty space surrounding it. They argue that their expanding wave could be a similarly legitimate violation on a larger scale. Hughes points out, however, that surveys have found the universe to be homogenous even above the level of our cluster of galaxies. And beyond the empirical level, violations of the Copernican principle make cosmologists uneasy. “It’s very philosophically disconcerting,” Wood-Vasey says. “It’s not very satisfying.”
More than anything, an aesthetic sense of what’s natural or elegant seems to divide the mathematicians and cosmologists. Temple and Smoller emphasize that acceleration comes naturally from their equations, with no need for extra factors. The addition of dark energy is, in the words of Jim Glimm, former president of the American Mathematical Society, “a little bit ugly.” But Wood-Vasey and other cosmologists balk at a theory that arises purely from equations instead of observations. “We all want a fundamentally deeper, more beautiful explanation,” he says, a simple rule that explains a variety of observations. “Dark energy isn’t satisfying because we don’t know what it is,” he concedes. But it manages to bring our models of the universe in accord with our observations, not an insignificant feat, and not devoid of beauty in its own right.
Some cosmologists are dismissive of Smoller and Temple’s theory: “It’s a piece of mathematics,” says Arizona State’s Lawrence Krauss. “I think that these mathematicians might have chosen the beautiful over the true.” But Hughes, who calls it “a tour de force of mathematical analysis ,” argues that though it presents a radical philosophical shift, the wave theory could nevertheless be useful to cosmologists.
“The concept of ‘dark energy’ is a way of parameterizing our ignorance,” he said in an email. “Given our shaky understanding of the physics behind it, I would hope that people are open-minded enough to see what might be learned from this work. We have for practical purposes no understanding of ‘dark energy’; there isn’t even a glimmer of consensus.”
While the debate continues on Earth, NASA’s Joint Dark Energy Mission, headed by the LBNL cosmologists, is planning a space telescope to gather more detailed data than ever before about what dark energy might be. As the mathematicians work towards testing their theory, a process that might need JDEM data, the project moves slowly through conceptual shifts, funding cuts, and changing timelines. The launch date, as of now, is 2016.
Source
Source
Friday, August 14, 2009
Monday, September 18, 2006
СУДЬБЫ МИРОЗДАНИЯ
Алексей ЛЕВИН
Все распались мезоны, Все распались нейтроны, Излучился весь видимый свет. По закону Кулона / Разлетелись протоны, На лептоны надежды нет. (Д. Фроман, "Баллада об астронавте" из книги "Физики шутят") Десяток лет назад в космологии доминировали две модели эволюции космоса, основанные на общей теории относительности (ОТО). В открытой модели Вселенная расширяется вечно, но скорость ее расширения монотонно сокращается и стремится к положительному пределу. В закрытой модели расширение сменяется сжатием.
Все зависит от того, будет ли в начале процесса расширения средняя плотность энергии космической материи больше или меньше некого критического значения. Астрономические данные привели ученых к выводу, что в сумме средняя энергетическая плотность всех известных видов вещества и излучения и гипотетической темной материи составляет всего 30% от критического показателя. Однако в 1998 году наблюдения за очень далекими сверхновыми привели астрономов к выводу, что скорость расширения Вселенной не падает, а, наоборот, возрастает! Такая возможность раньше рассматривалась лишь чисто теоретически. Сейчас принято считать, что отношение полной плотности энергии к критическому значению лишь чуть-чуть меньше единицы. Для подсчета этой полной плотности надо добавить еще одно слагаемое, энергию вакуума (ее также называют темной энергией). Эта энергия противостоит силе тяготения и, следовательно, вызывает расширение пространства. По последним данным, она не играла существенной роли в течение первой половины жизни Вселенной, но около шести миллиардов лет назад по непонятной причине включилась в работу. Недавно полученные данные заставили ученых пересмотреть выводы о том, из чего состоит наша Вселенная Чтобы вакуум действовал как антигравитатор, плотность его энергии должна быть положительной. Наблюдение за дальними сверхновыми показало, что Вселенная ускоряет свое расширение очень медленно. Это означает, что плотность энергии вакуума все же достаточно мала. Если такая ситуация сохранится и в будущем, то Вселенная до скончания времени будет расширяться с очень плавным ускорением. Этот сценарий (с темной энергией или без нее) называют Большой заморозкой (Big Freeze). Но есть и альтернатива – если темная энергия наберет силу, темпы расширения резко возрастут и Вселенная буквально взорвется, причем за сравнительно короткое время. Этот вариант называется Большим разрывом (Big Rip). Наиболее подробно "морозильный" сценарий разработали американские физики Фред Адамс и Грегори Лафлин как раз накануне открытия ускоренного расширения Вселенной – в 1997 году. Они выполняли свои вычисления на базе стандартной открытой модели без учета энергии вакуума. Согласно их модели, история нашей Вселенной насчитывает четыре эры. Модели расширения Вселенной. Вселенная, замедляющая свое расширение (слева), достигает своего нынешнего размера (в желтой рамке) за наименьшее время. Она может коллапсировать или расширяться бесконечно, снижая темпы до нуля.
Вселенная, расширяющаяся с постоянной скоростью (в центре), старше предыдущей – для достижения современного размера ей требуется больше времени. Она расширяется бесконечно. Вселенная, расширяющаяся с ускорением (справа), еще старше. Скорость ее расширения увеличивается из-за действия антигравитационных сил вакуума Звездная эра началась через сотню миллионов лет после Большого взрыва. Во Вселенной стали возникать первые звезды и началась интенсивная генерация энергии за счет термоядерного синтеза в звездных недрах. Эти процессы продолжаются и сейчас, но Адамс и Лафлин вычислили, что звездообразование закончится, когда Вселенной исполнится 1014 лет. К этому времени в космическом пространстве больше не останется свободного водорода, способного стягиваться гравитацией в газо-пылевые облака, дающие начало новым звездам. Тогда же прекратятся и ядерные реакции в самых легких (0,08–0,3 массы Солнца) и потому долгоживущих звездах, красных карликах. Все прочие светила еще раньше исчерпают термоядерное топливо. Звезды с массой до 8–12 солнечных масс закончат свое существование остывающими белыми карликами, на месте более тяжелых светил (до 25–30 масс Солнца) возникнут нейтронные звезды, а звезды-сверхгиганты дадут начало черным дырам. Звездная эра закончится. Эра вырождения охватывает промежуток 1015–1037 лет. От сверкавших некогда термоядерных светил остались нейтронные звезды и белые карлики. Есть еще "несостоявшиеся" звезды – коричневые карлики, водородные тела с массой от 10 до 80 масс Юпитера (0,01–0,08 массы Солнца). Они слишком легки для поджога термоядерной реакции, но нагревают свою поверхность до шести-семи сотен градусов за счет гравитационного сжатия. Наличествуют также планеты, планетоиды и прочая космическая мелочь. И конечно, копятся черные дыры. Дыры-супергиганты, которые в звездную эру сформировались в активных ядрах большинства галактик, продолжают глотать вещество и увеличивать размеры и массу. К ним добавляются дыры звездных масштабов, наследницы самых массивных светил. Случается, что дыры сливаются друг с другом и с нейтронными звездами и еще больше распухают. Далее прогноз становится менее определенным. Как известно, свободные нейтроны быстро распадаются на протоны, электроны и антинейтрино (бета-распад), а потому выживают либо в составе атомных ядер, либо внутри сверхплотных нейтронных звезд. Протоны тоже не вечны, так сегодня считают большинство физиков. Период их полураспада пока точно не определен, но, по оценкам, он превышает 1032 лет. Адамс и Лафлин заложили в свою модель куда большее значение – 1037 лет. Это означает, что к концу эры вырождения распадется каждый второй из 1078 протонов, возникших после Большого взрыва. Распад протона может осуществляться разными путями, но все же доминирует канал с образованием нейтрального пи-мезона и позитрона. Первая частица превращается в два высокоэнергетичных фотона, а вторая делает то же самое после аннигиляции с электроном. Таким образом, один протон дает начало четырем гамма-квантам. Следовательно, в конце эры вырождения обычное вещество в составе планет и белых карликов начнет превращаться в излучение. Исчезновение протонов сулит смерть и нейтронным звездам. Они покрыты коркой обычного вещества, которое испарится при протонном распаде. На оголенной поверхности звезды плотность нейтронной материи относительно невелика, и нейтроны начинают исчезать в бета-распадах. Финал все тот же – вещество дает начало излучению. Эра черных дыр приходится на промежуток 1038–10100 лет. В это время исчезнут практически все барионы (протоны и нейтроны), и единственными макрообъектами Вселенной останутся черные дыры. Однако и они постепенно испарятся в излучение и исчезнут во взрывах (статья "Удивительная история черных дыр" из "ПМ" №11’2005 есть на интернет-сайте журнала). Супермассивная дыра, успевшая заглотить крупную галактику (порядка ста миллиардов солнечных масс), может протянуть не более 1098 лет. Так что к концу этой эпохи дыры практически исчезнут. Темная эра наступит, когда возраст мироздания превысит 10100 лет. Из былого богатства материи останутся лишь кванты электромагнитного излучения почти нулевой температуры и стабильные лептоны (нейтрино, электроны и позитроны). Некоторые электроны и позитроны образуют связанные пары (атомы позитрония), поперечник которых может составлять триллионы световых лет. Эти частицы будут сближаться по спирали и в конце концов тоже аннигилируют (через 10141 лет). Оставшиеся в неимоверно разбухшем космосе свободные электроны и позитроны встречаться не будут, а посему и не исчезнут. Это и есть космологическая тепловая смерть в самом чистом виде. Оправдается ли этот прогноз, сделанный в 1997 году? "Я полагаю, что сценарий Большой заморозки вполне убедителен до сих пор, – говорит "Популярной механике2 профессор Мичиганского университета Фред Адамс. – Теперь мы знаем, что Вселенная расширяется с небольшим ускорением. Это означает, что космическое пространство опустеет быстрее, нежели в наших расчетах, но в остальном мало что изменится". Профессор Калифорнийского университета Грегори Лафлин добавляет: "Космологическая тепловая смерть все же не означает беспредельного охлаждения. Девять лет назад мы считали, что температура Вселенной будет стремиться к абсолютному нулю. Однако недавно было показано, что благодаря ненулевой энергии вакуума температура реликтовых фотонов при любом расширении пространства не упадет ниже 10–27 К". Сценарии Большого разрыва рассматривают с начала 1980-х годов. Наиболее экзотический из них в 2003 году предложили Роберт Калдвелл, Марк Камионковски и Невин Вейнберг. В соответствии с их моделью, все возрастающее увеличение темной энергии приведет к вселенскому антиколлапсу. Ждать этого не так уж и долго – всего 20 миллиардов лет. За миллиард лет до этого срока скорость расширения пространства возрастет до такой степени, что кластеры галактик потеряют всякую устойчивость и начнут разрушаться. Распад Млечного Пути начнется за 60 миллионов лет до рокового финала. За три месяца до него послесолнечный белый карлик не сможет удерживать оставшиеся планеты, и меньше чем за час расширяющееся пространство разорвет и их. А затем придет очередь пылевых частиц, атомов, атомных ядер и даже протонов и нейтронов, которые распадутся на кварки и глюоны. Это-то и будет настоящим концом света. Не все модели эволюции Вселенной относят ее гибель в далекое будущее. Существует сценарий, согласно которому финал может наступить даже завтра. Впервые он был предложен московскими физиками М.Б. Волошиным, И.Ю. Кобзаревым и Л.Б. Окунем в 1975 году, однако в их работе содержались ошибки. Спустя пять лет американцы Сидни Коулман и Фрэнк Де Луччиа уточнили этот сценарий. В то время считалось, что вакуум нашего мира, скорее всего, является истинным (см. врезку) и обладает нулевой энергией. Коулман и Де Луччиа, напротив, предположили, что наш вакуум фальшивый, то есть находится в чрезвычайно долгоживущем (как говорят физики, метастабильном) возбужденном состоянии с положительной энергией. Они показали, что механизм квантового туннелирования делает возможным спонтанное превращение ложного вакуума в истинный в крошечной области пространства. Родившийся пузырек истинного вакуума станет расширяться, порождая внутри себя материю с абсолютно новыми физическими свойствами и полностью уничтожая наш фальшиво-вакуумный мир. Где бы такой пузырь ни возник, до нас он доберется со скоростью света и, следовательно, без всякого предупреждения. Аналог этого сценария возникает и в новейшей версии квантовой гравитации, основанной на теории суперструн. "Эта теория также предполагает, что вакуум метастабилен. Он может туннелировать в состояние с нулевой плотностью энергии, но может случиться и так, что эта плотность окажется отрицательной. В первом случае наш мир обретет еще шесть пространственных измерений, то есть пространство-время станет уже не четырехмерным, а десятимерным. Разумеется, это будет мир с совершенно другой физикой, мы там не выживем. Второй вариант похуже. Если плотность вакуумной энергии где-то упадет ниже нуля, космос будет поглощен пузырем всеобщего коллапса, расширяющимся со скоростью света, – объясняет профессор Стэнфордского университета Андрей Линде. – Коулман и Де Луччиа допускали последнюю возможность, однако не принимали ее всерьез. В конце мая мы с коллегами опубликовали расчеты, из которых следует, что этот вариант нельзя сбрасывать со счетов. Однако он не означает конца всей Мультивселенной, поскольку в ней будут появляться новые миры, рожденные космической инфляцией. Так что мироздание как целое все же бессмертно". Закрытые модели мироздания не отличаются особым разнообразием. Вселенная еще какое-то время будет расширяться, в силу чего температура реликтового космического излучения (которая сейчас равна 2,7 К) продолжит падать. Далее такое расширение сменится сжатием, скорость которого будет непрерывно увеличиваться. Галактики станут сближаться, температура реликтовых фотонов возрастет, пространство-время будет искривляться все сильнее и сильнее, и в конце концов мироздание исчезнет в квантовой сингулярности. Фактически, это Большой взрыв с обратным знаком. Сейчас плотность космической энергии меньше критической, и этот сценарий вроде бы не имеет шансов на реализацию. Однако из некоторых квантовых теорий гравитации следует, что в будущем темная энергия может изменить знак и начать работать не на расширение, а на сжатие пространства. В этом случае коллапс мироздания может стать реальностью. Любопытно, что согласно кое-каким расчетам его придется ожидать примерно столько же, сколько и Большого разрыва – 10–20 миллиардов лет. По обычным представлениям, вакуум – это просто отсутствие чего бы то ни было, то есть обычная пустота. Однако это бытовое определение не подходит ученым, изучающим квантовую теорию поля. Физики считают, что вакуум – не абсолютная пустота, а весьма сложная динамическая система с множеством степеней свободы. В нем отсутствуют реальные частицы, однако (в силу квантовых соотношений неопределенностей) постоянно рождаются и исчезают их виртуальные аналоги. Если вакуум пребывает в состоянии с минимально возможной энергией, его называют истинным. Однако вакуум может обладать и возбужденными состояниями с более высокими значениями энергии. Такой вакуум называют фальшивым. Кстати, теория инфляционного расширения новорожденной Вселенной как раз исходит из того, что на этой стадии энергия ложного вакуума была чрезвычайно высока Существуют сценарии циклически пульсирующего мироздания, многократно рождающегося из сингулярностей, претерпевающего расширение и сжатие и вновь гибнущего в коллапсе – этакий вселенский маятник, качающийся из стороны в сторону, с постепенно затухающими колебаниями. В 2005 году такую модель с циклами длительностью порядка триллиона лет предложили американец Пол Стейнхардт из Принстонского университета и его британский коллега Нейл Тьюрок из Кембриджа. В их сценарии от колебания к колебанию вакуум многократно переходит на все более низкие энергетические уровни, что и служит причиной катаклизмов. Эта модель хороша тем, что может объяснить то, что не объясняют другие модели, например, что было до Большого взрыва. Но в конце концов у Вселенной, как у пружинных часов, просто "закончится завод" – плотность вакуумной энергии достигает истинного минимума, и вот тогда Вселенная коллапсирует окончательно и бесповоротно.Впрочем, ждать этого придется очень долго.
Источник: "Популярная механика"
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)
